Massacre at the Festival of Toxcatl

On May 20, 1520, Spanish conquistadors led by Pedro de Alvarado attacked unarmed Aztec nobles congregated at the Festival of Toxcatl, one of the most important festivals on the native religious calendar. Alvarado believed he had evidence of an Aztec plot to attack and murder the Spanish, who had recently occupied the city and taken Emperor Montezuma captive. Thousands were slaughtered by the ruthless Spaniards, including much of the leadership of the Mexica city of Tenochtitlan. After the massacre, the city of Tenochtitlan rose up against the invaders, and on June 30, 1520, they would successfully (if temporarily) drive them out. Hernan Cortes and the Conquest of the Aztecs In April of 1519, Hernan Cortes had landed near present-day Veracruz with some 600 conquistadors. The ruthless Cortes had slowly made his way inland, encountering several tribes along the way. Many of these tribes were unhappy vassals of the warlike Aztecs, who ruled their empire from the marvelous city of Tenochtitlan. In Tlaxcala, the Spanish had fought the warlike Tlaxcalans before agreeing to an alliance with them. The conquistadors had continued on to Tenochtitlan by way of Cholula, where Cortes orchestrated a massive massacre of local leaders he claimed were complicit in a plot to murder them. In November of 1519, Cortes and his men reached the glorious city of Tenochtitlan. They were initially welcomed by Emperor Montezuma, but the greedy Spaniards soon wore out their welcome. Cortes imprisoned Montezuma and held him hostage against the good behavior of his people. By now the Spanish had seen the vast golden treasures of the Aztecs and were hungry for more. An uneasy truce between the conquistadors and an increasingly resentful Aztec population lasted into the early months of 1520. Cortes, Velazquez, and Narvaez Back in Spanish-controlled Cuba, governor Diego Velazquez had learned of Cortes exploits. Velazquez had initially sponsored Cortes but had tried to remove him from command of the expedition. Hearing of the great wealth coming out of Mexico, Velazquez sent veteran conquistador Panfilo de Narvaez to rein in the insubordinate Cortes and regain control of the campaign. Narvaez landed in April of 1520 with a massive force of over 1000 well-armed conquistadors.   Cortes mustered as many men as he could and returned to the coast to battle Narvaez. He left about 120 men behind in Tenochtitlan and left his trusted lieutenant Pedro de Alvarado in charge. Cortes met meet Narvaez in battle and defeated him on the night of May 28-29, 1520. With Narvaez in chains, most of his men joined Cortes. Alvarado and the Festival of Toxcatl In the first three weeks of May, the Mexica (Aztecs) traditionally celebrated the Festival of Toxcatl.   This long festival was dedicated to the most important of the Aztec gods, Huitzilopochtli. The purpose of the festival was to ask for the rains which would water the Aztec crops for another year, and it involved dancing, prayers, and human sacrifice. Before he left for the coast, Cortes had conferred with Montezuma and had decided that the festival could go on as planned. Once Alvarado was in charge, he also agreed to allow it, on the (unrealistic) condition that there be no human sacrifices. A Plot Against the Spanish? Before long, Alvarado began to believe that there was a plot to kill him and the other conquistadors remaining in Tenochtitlan. His Tlaxcalan allies told him that they had heard rumors that at the conclusion of the festival, the people of Tenochtitlan were to rise against the Spanish, capture them and sacrifice them. Alvarado saw stakes being fixed into the ground, of the sort used to hold captives while they awaited being sacrificed. A new, gruesome statue of Huitzilopochtli was being raised onto the top of the great temple. Alvarado spoke to Montezuma and demanded he put an end to any plots against the Spanish, but the emperor answered that he knew of no such plot and could not do anything about it anyway, as he was a prisoner. Alvarado was further enraged by the obvious presence of sacrificial victims in the city. The Temple Massacre Both the Spanish and the Aztecs became increasingly uneasy, but the Festival of Toxcatl began as planned. Alvarado, by now convinced of the evidence of a plot, decided to take the offensive. On the fourth day of the festival, Alvarado placed half of his men on guard duty around Montezuma and some of the highest-ranking Aztec lords and placed the rest in strategic positions around the Patio of the Dances near the Great Temple, where the Serpent Dance was to take place. The Serpent Dance was one of the most important moments of the Festival, and the Aztec nobility was in attendance, in beautiful cloaks of brightly colored feathers and animal skins. Religious and military leaders were present as well. Before long, the courtyard was full of brightly colored dancers and attendees. Alvarado gave the order to attack. Spanish soldiers closed off the exits to the courtyard and the massacre began. Crossbowmen and harquebusiers rained down death from the rooftops, while heavily armed and armored foot soldiers and about a thousand Tlaxcalan allies waded into the crowd, cutting down the dancers and revelers. The Spanish spared no one, chasing down those who begged for mercy or fled. Some of the revelers fought back and even managed to kill a few of the Spanish, but the unarmed nobles were no match for steel armor and weapons. Meanwhile, the men guarding Montezuma and the other Aztec lords murdered several of them but spared the emperor himself and a few others, including Cuitlà ¡huac, who would later become Tlatoani (Emperor) of the Aztecs after Montezuma. Thousands were killed, and in the aftermath, the greedy Spanish soldiers picked the corpses clean of golden ornaments. Spanish Under Siege Steel weapons and cannons or not, Alvarados 100 conquistadors were seriously outnumbered. The city rose in outrage and attacked the Spanish, who had barricaded themselves in the palace which had been their quarters. With their harquebuses, cannons, and crossbows, the Spanish were able to mostly hold off the assault, but the rage of the people showed no signs of subsiding. Alvarado ordered Emperor Montezuma to go out and calm the people. Montezuma complied, and the people temporarily ceased their assault on the Spanish, but the city was still full of rage. Alvarado and his men were in a most precarious situation. Aftermath of the Temple Massacre Cortes heard of his mens dilemma and rushed back to Tenochtitlan after defeating Panfilo de Narvaez. He found the city in a state of uproar and was barely able to re-establish order. After the Spanish forced him to go out and plead for his people to stay calm, Montezuma was attacked with stones and arrows by his own people. He died slowly of his wounds, passing away on or about June 29, 1520. The death of Montezuma only made the situation worse for Cortes and his men, and Cortes decided that he simply did not have enough resources to hold the enraged city. On the night of June 30, the Spanish tried to sneak out of the city, but they were spotted and the Mexica (Aztecs) attacked. This became known as the Noche Triste, or Night of Sorrows, because hundreds of Spaniards were killed as they fled the city. Cortes escaped with most of his men and over the next few months would begin a campaign to re-take Tenochtitlan. The Temple Massacre is one of the more infamous episodes in the history of the Conquest of the Aztecs, which had no shortage of barbarous events. Whether or not the Aztecs did, in fact, intend to rise up against Alvarado and his men is unknown. Historically speaking, there is little hard evidence for such a plot, but it is undeniable that Alvarado was in an extremely dangerous situation which got worse daily. Alvarado had seen how the Cholula Massacre had stunned the population into docility, and perhaps he was taking a page from Cortes book when he ordered the Temple Massacre.   Sources: Diaz del Castillo, Bernal. . Trans., ed. J.M. Cohen. 1576. London, Penguin Books, 1963. Print.Levy, Buddy. Conquistador: Hernan Cortes, King Montezuma and the Last Stand of the Aztecs. New York: Bantam, 2008.Thomas, Hugh. Conquest: Montezuma, Cortes and the Fall of Old Mexico. New York: Touchstone, 1993.

The Age Of Romanticism During The French Revolution And...

Literature, as we know it is a vast subject. It contains everything from grim realities to profound fantasies. In short it can never be monotonous, it has got to be happening, whether in a tragic or in an ecstatic way. Most of us seek for some kind of entertainment which can take our mind off our daily monotonous routine and take us to a vicarious journey of pleasurable things, thus we are to some extent escapists. The sources of escapism majority of the people indulge in are often banal or if not then at least it is not as creative as the romantic poets. The romantic poets through their creative geniuses had the luxury to create their own disparate worlds where they could enjoy their flights of fantasy. The age of romanticism was blessed†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"Dear Liberty! Yet what would it avail But for a gift that consecrates the joy? For I, methought, while the sweet breath of heaven Was blowing on my body, felt within A correspondent breeze, that gently moved With quickening virtue, but is now become A tempest, a redundant energy, Vexing its own creation.† (40-48) A child cries for one moment and is ecstatic at the other. Childhood is filled with fairy tales and is in fact the most beautiful and justifiable way of escapism every person would like to go back to. The happiness and light heartedness of this phase makes it philosophically interesting. Wordsworth in his poem, Thechild is the father of man explains the wisdom a child can impart to adults. â€Å"My heart leaps up when I behold A rainbow in the sky: So was it when my life began; So is it now I am a man; So be it when I shall grow old, Or let me die! The Child is father of the Man; I could wish my days to be Bound each to each by natural piety.† In Wordsworth’s poem We are Seven, how fascinated he is with an eight year old girl. The girl looked very innocent. Her hair was ruffled. The poet asks the girl about the number of siblings she has seven and she says that they are seven siblings including her. The poet asks where do they live to which she replies two are in Conway two are in the sea and the other two lie in the churchyard cottage. The poet insists that theShow MoreRelatedThe Industrial Revolution Of The 19th Century927 Words   |  4 PagesEurope in the nineteenth-century was rapidly evolving into a more modernized society, and many political and cultural ideas were developing during this change. The Industrial Revolution triggered an enormous increase of the standard of living throughout most of Europe and North America. The transformation from the old style of hand made production to the new factory system caused many industries to build factories. This caused many people of the working class to move to the factories in search ofRead MoreOn How the Artists of the Romantic Period Chose to React against the Approaches and Philosophy Established during the Age of Elightment 1185 Words   |  5 Pagestaking a look at how artists during the Romantic period, that took place around the 18th and 19th centuries, choose to react against the approaches and philosophy established by artist during the age of Enlightenment. We will take a look at a few obviously Romantic artworks to help us better our understanding of this fascinating movement. To understand how Romanticism has rejected, or reacted to, the Enlightenment, we first need to take a look at what artists believed during the Enlightenment era. AccordingRead MoreSimilarities and Differences Between the Romantic Age and the Victorian Period.1210 Words   |  5 PagesRomantic Age and the Victorian Period. Similarities and Differences between the Romantic Age and the Victorian Period What were the similarities and differences between the Romantic Age and the Victorian Period? The Romantic Age and Victorian Period had many similarities, but they had far more differences. They first differed in rule: the Romantic Age didn’t have a king or queen, but the Victorian Period did. They were similar and different in writing styles, and beliefs. The Industrial Revolution alsoRead MoreThe Romantic Age vs. The Victorian Period Essay1264 Words   |  6 PagesRomantic Age and Victorian Period had many similarities, but they had just as many or more differences. They first differed in rule; the Romantic Age didnt have a king or queen, but they did during the Victorian Period. They were similar and different in writing styles, and beliefs. The Industrial Revolution also had a huge effect on both time periods. The Romantic Period was from 1784 until 1832, it brought a more brave, individual, and imaginative approach to both literature and life. During thisRead MoreEssay on Frankenstein: Development through Romanticism1614 Words   |  7 Pages Mary Shelly’s Frankenstein is a Gothic and Romantic novel written in the early 1800s. The novel opens with Captain Robert Walton as he is sailing on his ship on the search for new and undiscovered territory. During his exploration, Robert’s ship becomes trapped in ice, and he encounters Victor Frankenstein, who looks miserable. When Robert begins to talk to Victor, Victor starts to explain his life story, which ends up being a complete tragedy. Victor tells Robert of his desire to discover theRead MoreThe Contributions Of The Romantic Era And Romanticism1107 Words   |  5 Pageswas a time for reason, as well as a time for love. As we have seen from our past, today we have time for both. The Age of Reason, also known as the Enlightenment, took place during the 18th century, which was a time for philosophers to thrive. They sought out the truth behind our everyday lives, to figure out how they shaped our society. The Romantic Era or Romanticism took place during the la te 18th century to the late 19th century focused on following people’s hearts more than their minds. TheseRead MoreRomanticism Response To The Industrial Revolution702 Words   |  3 PagesRomanticism was a response towards the industrial revolution. The movement rejected the idea of reason that gripped the educational masses of earlier 18th century Europe. Romaticism idolized the unknown and the idea of personification. As romanticism started to dwindle in the mid 1800’s innovative ideas formed. The new movements that evolved from Romanticism are Nationalism, Liberalism, and Conservatism. Liberalism didn’t start out as a reactionary or branch off from the romanticism period, insteadRead MoreRomanticism, By Charles Baudelaire1235 Words   |  5 PagesRomanticism is an artistic revolt that originated in Europe in the 18th century. It rejected the rationalism, logical thinking, and societal norms associated with the Age of Enlightenment. Rather, it embraced ideals that came out of the French Revolution. The works of art focused on promoting free-thinking and provoking feeling from its viewers. To further explain Romanticism, poet and critic Charles Baudelaire once wrote that romanticism is precisely situated neither in choice of subject nor inRead MoreThe Prelude by William Wordsworth1181 Words   |  5 Pagesway of thinking and decision making. This perspective is constantly tested by the prolonged process of maturation that continues with age. The Romantic period ceded a break from intellectual conformity towards emancipation; it marked a radical shift in p opular thinking, resulting in the growth in the value of literature, art and nature. Young Wordsworths life during this inquisitive time establishes a unique context in which to describe the relation between ones experiences and ones developingRead MoreThere are many periods in time that have been crucial in the development of human ideals and1300 Words   |  6 Pagesdesignated by the term â€Å"Industrial Revolution†. This term would forever hold true, as europe became the â€Å"industrial cradle† of the world. There are many people credited with this, but the first person to refer to what was going on in the world as the â€Å"Industrial Revolution† was the French economist Adoplphe Blanqui. The concept of this idea of a â€Å"revolution† was loosely based on the parallel between the British economic and technological revolution, and the French political revolution. As it was stated

Cultural Imperialism free essay sample

With the vast advancement of technology today, the world has become progressively interconnected. Together with the rise in connection and communication, countries’ borders are also increasingly unclear as cultures cross borders and people adopt new ways of life styles and new manners of thinking. Most Asian societies for example, view the world from the eyes of the Americans or western culture and hence, they tend to adopt a foreign lifestyle in their apparel choices, the way they converse, even the type of food and eating etiquettes. Cultural Imperialism Over the past few decades, the vast improvements in technology have enabled efficient communication of information across the globe. Businesses in the best of nations have risen increasingly in scale and value. This, in turn, helps a handful of powerful nations exert influence over the world. Not only these few nations dominate the majority’s media consumption, they also consequently transmit their values and ideologies through these media channels. We will write a custom essay sample on Cultural Imperialism or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This process of dominating and influencing the mass through the media texts is known as cultural imperialism, which is the main component of capitalism and hence promoted by developed nations across the continents. Cultural Imperialism through Television A high percentage of Americans are couch potatoes and are typically glued to their television sets. According to a report in the Wall Street Journal, in 2012, Americans watch two hours and 50 minutes of television a day. AC Nielsen Co. household survey in 2013, found that an average American household had 2. 24 TV sets and more than 65% of households had three TV sets or more. Singapore’s households have very similar statistics to the Americans and with the low cost of TV sets; they too have multiple sets in their homes. Having multiple TV sets is the norm in a modern affluent society like Singapore and America and TV networks have been feeding the viewer’s appetite for TV series. One such TV series was Sex and The City which was produced by HBO from 1998 until 2004. The series was so popular that it spawned two feature movies, Sex and the City (2008) and its sequel, Sex and The City 2 (2010). The series was filmed in New York City and follows the life style of four women who were close friends, with three of the women in their mid-thirties and one in her forties. It starred Sarah Jessica Parker (as Carrie Bradshaw), Kim Cattrall (as Samantha Jones), Kristin Davis (as Charlotte York), and Cynthia Nixon (as Miranda Hobbes). Television Series Sex and the City This funny and quirky series explored relevant and modern American social issues such as safe sex, promiscuity, female sexuality and femininity. In Singapore, these issues that are still taboo subjects in modern Asian cultures particularly, in Singapore where pornography is illegal. In the series, the fashionably dressed Sarah Jessica Parker playing her character, Carrie, set the trendy scene for the fashion conscious. Brand named labels were clamoring to have Carrie wear their clothing in the show. The series gave the impression that New Yorkers were trendy people and are always well dressed. In almost every episode, the subject of sex and the performance of their partners came up and this certainly pulled in the attention of the audience but promoted promiscuity. Kim Cattrall as Samantha played the female version of the Casanova with her flitting from one man to another in search of sexual gratification. Having multiple sexual partners was their norm for Samantha and her partners were treated as her personal sexual device to be used and thrown away. Kristin Davis as Charlotte was the conservative character on the screen and the character even showed her exploration of lesbianism albeit a short one. Gay relationships are still an unthinkable option in the Asian Singaporean society and stories such as this may encourage more young people to explore homo-sexual relationships. In one of the episodes, Charlotte meets another woman who has a completely opposite personality and together, they explore cross dressing. Women become men and they both explore a lesbian relationship. The Good, the Bad and the Ugly The series glamorizes sex without emphasizing on its downsides such as pregnancy, HIV and sexually transmitted diseases. Teenagers, who watched series such as Sex and The City, are easily swayed by the negative values that go against the ‘Confucian’ values that are encouraged by the Singapore government. The sexual content will easily turn on the teenager’s hot blooded sexual needs to explore various avenues for sexual exploration without understanding the consequences of their actions. What kind of values are popular TV series such Sex and The City teaching young and naive women around the world that, even a whoring bimbo, if they are patient and wait it out, they’ll eventually get that big house with the garden and the luxury car out on the porch. On the positive note, American series do give the conservative Asian audience a taste of America’s freedom of speech as well as the directness of their conversation when dealing with difficult issues both personal and at work. The women’s rights are extensively explored and emphasized. Cultural Imperialism through Movies This is no mystery as United States has a tremendous international influence to the world. The American lifestyle is well presented in the works of arts which attracts the admiration of many other societies. In addition, what people like becomes the drive to the values and ideologies of the Americans. Similar to the field in TV programmes, other fields such as music and movies imitate the way and as a result, there is a cultural domination followed by an unequal exchange of cultures. The United States’ cultural imperialism is apparent through the media and over the years, the media have facilitated America’s cultural spread. Their cultural dominance is apparent predominantly through fashion, music, television programs and especially movies. Known to be the largest film industry in the world, American movies were played in over 100 countries every day. These movies are often remade with local flavor, but the more people watch American films, the more they try to emulate the norms they observed. The Birth of Ethnocentrism Having said that, most Americans have a growing sense of ethnocentrism due to cultural imperialism as they judge other cultures based on the norms of his or her own society. The problem with that is that many Americans don’t try to understand other cultures before labeling their norms as strange, bizarre, or even barbaric. The idea is that Americans have grown used to being emulated, that there is sense of cultural superiority rather than respect and intrigue for others. This leads to a general misunderstanding of others and stereotypes that place a whole people into one square. One of the main issues with cultural imperialism is whether individuals from the dominant culture actually accept other people’s cultures or do they become culturally exclusive. About 2% of the movies that come out in American theaters these days are foreign which proves that people are less likely to watch foreign films. In the 1920? s and 30? s, people were more likely to watch foreign films. As the U. S’s cultural imperialism expanded, people simply became less interested in foreign media. The Cause Effect of Imperialism in Movies Indubitably, language, lifestyle, value and ideology would be affected from over exposed of Hollywood movies. The most possible effect would generally be language. When movies are made in English and watched worldwide, they gained popularity and this attracts the audience to imitate the English speaking behavior, the American slang. The best way to learn about another culture would be through their language which would create mutual understanding between the two. However, the more people are exposed to western movies; it is most likely for them to lose their own identity and culture. They would begin to adopt American lifestyles from the way they behave, dressed and even how they express their feelings according to the movies they have been exposed to. Value and ideology would be affected as well. This could be seen from most western movies that freedom seemed to be the main ideology of America. Freedom must be granted and to fight was to gain freedom. This however has made many of their audiences believed that freedom could bring peace and they require more freedom in their life. Disney – Imperialism through Mass Media Perhaps this connection to cultural imperialism is remotely broad predicated, however the argument one can debate on is that these commodities bring with them Western imperialistic thought and perception, by subliminal brainwashing of children from a very adolescent age to be hooked on to Disney cartoons and cartoon characters. The political-economy perspective argues that the homogenisation of culture and communication through cultural imperialism leads to shared values and ideologies. In addition to which reflects a particular ideology on being a social phenomenon of American media, fashion, and food dominating the global market and shaping the cultures and identities of other nations. The Hollywood star system was created as a business strategy designed to generate large audiences and differentiate entertainment programs and products, and has been used for many years to provide increasing revenue on production investments. The Walt Disney Company Disney is the quintessence of cultural imperialism. Ever since the first appearance of Mickey Mouse in 1928, Disney films have taken a lion’s share in family entertainment in America, its characters have been eventually known and well-liked worldwide. Inevitably, Disney animated films, movies and characters have become an integral part of children culture. Besides generating profits from the sales of Disney films, Disney products have become a cultural commodity. The term cultural commodity refers to products of the print and audio-visual industries including movies, television, publishing, radio and music. These products are conveyances for the transmission of values, lifestyles and ideologies that many optically discern as corrosive to the recipient culture. An example is Disney princess line and its impact on girl’s self-concepts and body image. With the popularization of American culture through media conglomerates such as Disney, questions have been raised as to what effects these cultural commodities, or America by and large, are having on the values of societies and, in turn, on the realm of politics. The Effects of Disney Propaganda During World War II, Disney generated what could arguably be the most effective war time propaganda. In an effort to get support from the Americans, who had been growing up with Disney, for the government bond purchases, Disney was asked to create a cartoon series to put the US Army in the limelight. Disney’s On the Front Line was then produced to portray popular Disney characters, including Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck, joining the armed forces in a manner that was appealing to the viewers. The highlights of this series were two episodes that proved to be essential to the American war efforts. Walt Disney also went further to expose Adolf Hitler’s actions to the world with a short cartoon episode titled Der Fuehrer’s Face. The cartoon was a sequence of the average German’s life routines experienced from Donald Duck’s point of view. Donald was shown facing daily challenges working in a munitions factory under Nazi regime, some of which include being forced to salute Hitler numerous times in a day, and having to work overtime to â€Å"please the Furor†. Essentially, the cartoon aimed to satirize the constrained political freedom under Hitler’s regime. The cartoon ends with Donald waking from his dream and remembering how fortunate he was to have such a wealth of privileges living in America. Disney as a Megacorporation Under the tutelage of Disney and other mega corporations, children have become an audience captive not only to traditional forms of media such as film, television and print, but even more so to the incipient digital media made easily accessible through mobile phones, tablets, laptop computers and the Internet. As the Disney Empire has a strong business foresight for providing â€Å"dreams† and manufacturing products through the form of popular culture in which children are willing to materially and emotionally invest. Being an indispensable part of children’s culture places Disney at the forefront of the multimedia conglomerates. Besides aggressively marketing its own products, Disney is also believed to be an active medium of advocacy for Apple technological products. Often seen in popular Disney TV franchises such as High School Musical (2006), Hannah Montana (2006) and the Jonas Brothers (2005) are technological gadgets bearing the familiar Apple logo. Not surprisingly, the late Apple’s Chief Executive Officer and founder Steve Jobs has been said to be one of the major shareholders in Disney Co. and Pixar Studios, thus explaining the frequent appearance of Apple products in Disney movies. By targeting children whose minds are more impressionable than adults, Apple has been successful in exerting its dominance in the technological world through Disney, illustrating another aspect of cultural imperialism in the 21st century. Conclusion It is clear that the American culture plays a significant role in the imperialistic transfer of their culture to the world. At a subconscious level, the western lifestyle has affected the Asian traditional social structure and social consumption. As a result, our culture is superseded by the American way of life and their reach, have proved to be beneficial to the American multinational companies. In a way, even though cultural imperialism is creating a connection among all the nations, it is also causing tension among different people. Despite the cultural diversity in the U. S. A. , there are many people who don’t strive to understand other who are culturally dissimilar. Hopefully in this current generation, which is considerably to be more open minded, they will be more inclined to travel and learn about the different ways people live today.